GRAMMAR APPENDIX

ПРИЧАСТИЕ (PERFECT PARTICIPLE)

Функции :
1) В роли определения к существительному (какой? какая? какие?) He watched the falling snow.
Он смотрел на падающий снег. 2) После существительного, где причастие I вместе с относящимися к нему словами образует определительный причастный оборот. They reached the road leading to the city. Они дошли до дороги, ведущей в город. 3) В роли обстоятельства Причастие I поясняет когда?, почему?, по какой причине?, как?, при каких обстоятельствах? и т.д.
Travelling in Africa, he saw a lot of interesting things. Путешествуя по Африке, он увидел много интересного. When taking the decision I made a mistake. Принимая это решение, я сделал ошибку. + В причастных оборотах для выражения обстоятельств причины, Hoping to catch the train, we took a taxi. Надеясь успеть на поезд, мы взяли такси. + Для выражения обстоятельств образа действия или сопутствующих обстоятельств (действий) John came in, carrying his suitcase. Джон вошел, неся свой чемодан.

Во время занятий мы будем делать много перессказов с употреблением всех разновидностей причастий:

PARTICIPLE

In linguistics, a participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives.[1] It can be used in compound verb tenses or voices (periphrasis), or as a modifier. A phrase composed of a participle and other words is a participial phrase.   Etymology: The word comes from Latin participium,[2] a calque of Greek metoche? "partaking" or "sharing",[3] because the Ancient Greek and Latin participles share in the properties of the adjective or noun (gender, number, and case) and of the verb (tense and voice).

PARTICIPLE

[edit] Etymology

The word comes from Latin participium,^[2] a calque of Greek metoche? "partaking" or "sharing",^[3] because the Ancient Greek and Latin participles share in the properties of the adjective or noun (gender, number, and case) and of the verb (tense and voice).

[edit] Types

[edit] Adverbial and adjectival

In some languages, a distinction between adverbial participle and adjectival participle can be made. See причастие and деепричастие in Russian grammar, hatarozoi igenev and melleknevi igenev in Hungarian grammar, or imieslow in Polish grammar. Also many Eskimo languages make such a distinction, see for details e.g. the sophisticated participle system of Sireniki Eskimo.

[edit] Perfect passive

The perfect passive participle is the past participle expressed in the passive voice, for example

• The dog, having been praised by its master, was happy, or more commonly, The dog, praised by its master, was happy.

[edit] Perfect passive of deponent

Deponent verbs are typically passive in form but active in meaning and their participles thus take the form but not the meaning of the perfect passive participle. In Latin:

• precatus "having prayed" (from the verb precor, precari, precatus sum)

Compare with a non-deponent equivalent:

• laudatus "having been praised" (from the verb laudo, laudare, laudavi, laudatus)

[edit] Indo-European languages

[edit] Germanic languages

[edit] English

[edit] Modern English

English verbs have two participles:

1. called variously the present, active, imperfect, or progressive participle, it is identical in form to the gerund; the term present participle is sometimes used to include the gerund. The term gerund-participle is also used.
2. called variously the past, passive, or perfect participle, it is usually identical to the verb's preterite (past tense) form, though in irregular verbs the two usually differ.

Examples of participle formation include:

The present participle in English is in the active voice and is used for:

• forming the progressive aspect: Jim was sleeping.
• modifying a noun as an adjective: Let sleeping dogs lie.
• modifying a verb or sentence in clauses: Broadly speaking, the project was successful.

The present participle in English has the same form as the gerund, but the gerund acts as a noun rather than a verb or a modifier. The word sleeping in Your job description does not include sleeping is a gerund and not a present participle.

The past participle may be used in both active and passive voices:

• forming the perfect: The chicken has eaten.
• forming the passive voice: The chicken was eaten.
• modifying a noun, with active sense: our fallen comrades
• modifying a noun, with passive sense: the attached files
• modifying a verb or sentence, with passive sense: Seen from this perspective, the problem presents no easy solution.

As noun-modifiers, participles usually precede the noun (like adjectives), but in many cases they can or must follow it:

• The visiting dignitaries devoured the baked apples.
• Please bring all the documents required.
• The difficulties encountered were nearly insurmountable.

Even irregular past participle verbs often follow the format -en or -ne, as may be seen from above. For examples:

In a few archaic forms, originating in early Modern English, some irregular past participle verbs followed the format -on; for examples:

[edit] Old English

• In Old English, regular, or weak, present participles ended in -ende or -iende depending on verb class. In Middle English, various forms were used in different regions: -ende (SW, SE, Midlands), -inde (SW, SE), -and (N), -inge (SE). This latter form eventually fell together with the suffix -ing, used to form verbal nouns.
• Strong, or irregular, past participles were marked with a ge- prefix, as are most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and High German today.

[edit] Romance languages

[edit] Latin

Latin has three participles:

• present active participle: present stem + -ns (gen. –ntis); e.g. educans "teaching"
• perfect passive participle: participial stem + -us, -a, -um; e.g. educatus "(having been) taught"
• future active participle: participial stem + -urus, -ura, -urum; e.g. educaturus "about to teach"

The gerundive is sometimes considered the future passive participle, although it is more of the jussive mood than the future tense. It is formed from the present stem + (e)ndus, -a, -um; e.g. educandus "needing to be taught".

[edit] French

There are two basic participles:

• Present active participle: formed by dropping the -ons of the nous form of a verb(except with etre) and then adding ant: marchant "walking", etant "being"
• Past participle: formation varies according to verb group: vendu "sold", mis "placed", marche "walked", ete "been", and fait "done". The sense of the past participle is passive as an adjective and in most verbal constructions with "etre", but active in verbal constructions with "avoir", in reflexive constructions, and with some intransitive verbs.^[6]

Compound participles are possible:

• Present perfect participle: ayant appele "having called", etant mort "being dead"
• Passive perfect participle: etant vendu "being sold, having been sold"

Usage:

• Present participles are used as qualifiers as in "un insecte volant" (a flying insect) and some other contexts. They are never used in forming tenses. The present participle is used in subordinate clauses, usually with en; "Je marche, en parlant".
• Past participles are used as qualifiers for nouns "la table cassee" (the broken table), to form compound tenses such as the perfect "Vous avez dit"(you have said) and to for the passive voice "il a ete tue"(he/ it has been killed).

[edit] Spanish

In Spanish, the present or active participle (participio activo or participio de presente) of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes -ante, -ente or -iente, but modern grammar does not consider it a verbal form any longer, as they become adjectives or nouns on their own: e.g. amante "loving" or "lover", viviente "living" or "live".

The continuous is constructed much as in English, using a conjugated form of estar (to be) plus the gerundio (sometimes called a verbal adverb or adverbial participle as it does not decline) with the suffixes -ando (for -ar verbos) or -iendo (for both -ir and -er verbs): for example, estar haciendo means to be doing (haciendo being the gerundio of hacer, to do), and there are related constructions such as seguir haciendo meaning to keep doing (seguir being to continue).

The past participle (participio pasado or pasivo) is regularly formed with one of the suffixes -ado, -ido, but several verbs have an irregular form ending in -to (e.g. escrito, visto), or -cho (e.g. dicho, hecho). The past participle is used generally as an adjective meaning a finished action, or to form the passive voice, and it is variable in gender and number in these uses; and also it is used to form the compound tenses (as in English) in which it has only one form, the singular male one. Some examples:

As an adjective

• las cartas escritas "the written letters"

In the passive voice, accompanied by the verb "ser" (to be) and "por" (by)

• Los ladrones fueron capturados por la policia "The thieves were caught by the police."

To form compound tenses

• Ella ha escrito una carta. "She has written a letter."

[edit] Hellenic languages

[edit] Ancient Greek

The Ancient Greek participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for gender, case, and number. Like a verb, it has tense and voice, is modified by adverbs, and can take verb arguments, including an object.^[7]

There is a form of the participle for every combination of tense (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive). Here are the masculine nominative singular forms:

Like an adjective, it can modify a noun, and can be used to embed one thought into another.

• ????? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ????????????? ?????
  "he who intends to be a good general must have a great deal of ability and knowledge,"

In the example, the participial phrase ??? ?? ?????????????, literally "the one going to be a good general," is used to embed the idea ?? ??????????? "he will be a good general" within the main verb.

The participle is very widely used in ancient Greek, especially in prose.

[edit] Slavic languages

[edit] Polish

The Polish word for participle is imieslow (pl.: imieslowy). There are four types of imieslowy in two classes:

Adjectival participle (imieslow przymiotnikowy)

• active adjectival participle (imieslow przymiotnikowy czynny): robiacy - "doing", "one who does"
• passive adjectival participle (imieslow przymiotnikowy bierny): robiony - "being done" (can only be formed off transitive verbs)

Adverbial participle (imieslow przyslowkowy)

• present adverbial participle (imieslow przyslowkowy wspolczesny): robiac - "doing", "while doing"
• perfect adverbial participle (imieslow przyslowkowy uprzedni): zrobiwszy - "having done" (formed in virtually all cases off verbs in their perfective forms, here denoted by the prefix z-)

Dangling participle

Due to the distinction between adjectival and adverbial participles, in Polish it is practically impossible to make a dangling participle mistake in the classical English meaning of the term. For instance, in the sentence:

"I have found them hiding in the closet."

it is unclear, whether "I" or "them" is hiding in the closet. In Polish there is a clear distinction:

• "Znalazlem ich, chowajac sie w szafie." - chowajac is a present adverbial participle regarding the subject ("I")
• "Znalazlem ich chowajacych sie w szafie" - chowajacych is an active adjectival participle regarding the object ("them")

However, participles may cause confusion if used in sentences like this one:

• "Majac 8 lat, rodzice poslali mnie do szkoly" - "Being 8 years old my parents sent me to school"

which does not make it clear - in grammatical terms - whether "me" or "my parents" where 8 at the time of "me" being sent to school. The use of the present adverbial participle majac (corresponding to the participle being in the English translation) is considered incorrect, and thus a different structure should be used.

[edit] Russian

Verb: слышать /sl???t?/ (to hear, imperfective aspect)

Present active: слышащий /sl??a??ij/ "hearing", "who hears"
Present passive: слышимый /sl??im?j/ "being heard", "that is heard", "audible"
Past active: слышавший /sl??af?ij/ "who heard", "who was hearing"
Past passive: слышанный /sl???n?j/ "that was heard", "that was being heard"
Adverbial present active: слыша /sl???/ "(while) hearing"
Adverbial past active: слышав /sl???f/ "having been hearing"

Verb: услышать /usl???t?/ (to hear, perfective aspect)

Past active: услышавший /usl??af??ij/ "who has heard"
Past passive: услышанный /usl??an?j/ "that has been heard"
Adverbial past active: услышав /usl???f/ "having heard"

[edit] Bulgarian

Verb: правя pravja (to do, imperfective aspect)

Present active: правещ pravest
Past active aorist: правил pravil
Past active imperfect: правел pravel (only used in verbal constructions)
Past passive: правен praven
Adverbial present active: правейки pravejki

Verb: направя napravja (to do, perfective aspect)
Past active aorist: направил napravil
Past active imperfect: направел napravel (only used in verbal constructions)
Past passive: направен napraven

Participles are adjectives formed as verbs

[edit] Baltic languages

[edit] Lithuanian

Among Indo-European languages, the Lithuanian language is unique for having thirteen different participial forms of the verb, that can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb eiti ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms einas/einantis ("going, walking", present tense), ejes (past tense), eisias (future tense), eidaves (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms einamas ("being walked", present tense), eitas (“walked“ past tense), eisimas (future tense), the adverbial participles einant ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), ejus (past tense), eisiant (future tense), eidavus (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle eidamas ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity eitinas ("that which needs to be walked"). The active, passive and the semi- participles are inflected by gender and the active, passive and necessity ones are inflected by case.

[edit] Semitic languages

[edit] Arabic

The Arabic verb has two participles: an active participle (??? ??????) and a passive participle (??? ??????? ), and the form of the participle is predictable by inspection of the dictionary form of the verb. These participles are inflected for gender, number and case, but not person. Arabic participles are employed syntactically in a variety of ways: as nouns, as adjectives or even as verbs. Their uses vary across varieties of Arabic. In general the active participle describes a property of the syntactic subject of the verb from which it is derived, whilst the passive participles describes the object. For example, from the verb ??? kataba, the active participle is kaatibun ???? and the passive participle is maktuubun ?????. Roughly these translate to writing and written respectively. However, they have different, derived lexical uses. ???? kaatibun is further lexicalized as writer, author and ????? maktuubun as letter.

In Classical Arabic these participles do not participate in verbal constructions with auxiliaries the same way as their English counterparts do, and rarely take on a verbal meaning in a sentence (a notable exception being participles derived from motion verbs as well as participles in Qur'anic Arabic). In certain dialects of Arabic however, it is much more common for the participles, especially the active participle, to have verbal force in the sentence. For example, in dialects of the Levant, the active participle is a structure which describes the state of the syntactic subject after the action of the verb from which it is derived has taken place. Aakel, the active participle of akal (to eat), describes one's state after having eaten something. Therefore it can be used in analogous way to the English present perfect (i.e.,Ana aakel ??? ??? meaning I have eaten, I have just eaten or I have already eaten). Other verbs, such as raaH ??? (to go) give a participle (raayeH ????) which has a progressive (is going...) meaning. The exact tense or continuity of these participles is therefore determined by the nature of the specific verb (especially its lexical aspect and its transitivity) and the syntactic/semantic context of the utterance. What ties them all together is that they describe the subject of the verb from which they are derived. The passive participles in certain dialects can be used as a sort of passive voice, but more often than not, are used in their various lexicalized senses as adjectives or nouns.

[edit] Finno-Ugric languages

[edit] Finnish

Verb: tehda (to do)

Present active: tekeva
Present passive: tehtava
Past active: tehnyt
Past passive: tehty
Agent participle (passive): tekema (done by...)

Negative participle: tekematon

[edit] Other languages

[edit] Sireniki Eskimo

Sireniki Eskimo language, an extinct Eskimo–Aleut language, has separate sets of adverbial participles and adjectival participles. Interestingly, adverbial participles are conjugated to reflect the person and number of their implicit subjects; hence, while in English a sentence like "If I were a marksman, I would kill walruses" requires two full clauses (in order to distinguish the two verbs' different subjects), in Sireniki Eskimo one of these may be replaced with an adverbial participle (since its conjugation will indicate the subject).

[edit] Esperanto

Esperanto has 6 different participle conjugations; active and passive for past, present and future. This means that Esperanto participles are very precise. The participles are formed as follows:

For example, a falonta botelo is a bottle which will fall. A falanta botelo is one that is falling through the air. After it hits the floor, it is a falinta botelo. These examples use the active participles, but the usage of the passive participles is similar. A cake that is going to be divided is a dividota kuko. When it is in the process of being divided, it is a dividata kuko. Having been cut, it is now a dividita kuko.

These participles can be used in conjunction with the verb to be, esti, forming 18 compound tenses (9 active and 9 passive). However, this soon becomes complicated and often unnecessary, and is only frequently used when rigorous translation of English is required. An example of this would be la knabo estos instruita, or, the boy will have been taught. This example sentence is then in the future anterior.

When the suffix -o is used, instead of -a, then the participle refers to a person. A manganto is someone who is eating. A manginto is someone who ate. A mangonto is someone who will eat. Also, a mangito is someone who was eaten, a mangato is someone who is being eaten, and a mangoto is someone who will be eaten.

These rules hold true to all verbs, and there are no exceptions.

[edit] See also

• Grammar
• Hanging participle
• Verbal
• Adjectival participle
• Adverbial participle
• Gerund
• Attributive verb

[edit] External links

• List of English simple past and past participle verb forms from myenglishteacher.net

[edit] Notes

1. ^ What is a participle? in Glossary of linguistic terms at SIL International.
2. ^ participium. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
3. ^ ??????. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at Perseus Project
4. ^ Archaic form in early Modern English, used in the Book of Common Prayer version of the Magnificat, see e.g., King James Bible online. Accessed September 27, 2010.
5. ^ The past participle of want, or wanton, probably meant something like "something [he] wanted", for example, "3. Unrestrainedly excessive: wanton extravagance; wanton depletion of oil reserves. 4. Luxuriant; overabundant: wanton tresses. 5. Frolicsome; playful. 6. Undisciplined; spoiled. 7. Obsolete. Rebellious; refractory." See e.g., Answers.com. September 27, 2010.
6. ^ Maurice Grevisse, Le Bon Usage, 10th edition, § 776.
7. ^ Smyth, A Greek Grammar for Colleges, section 2039.

[edit] References

• Participles from the American Heritage Book of English Usage (1996).

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